Defining the Purpose and the Problem When Writing Proposals Essay

INTRODUCTION When drafting a proposal for any type of changes in the workplace, it is important to define the purpose and identify the problem being addressed in the proposal. There must be a needed or desired change identified in order to begin the research and planning phases of the project. Once the desired change is identified, the request for proposal process can begin. This process is repeatable and interchangeable with all project and grant proposals. GENERAL INFORMATION Collecting project requirements is the first step in determining the processes to be used to meet those requirements. The stakeholders of the project should be identified and each group’s individual tasks and boundaries identified. At the Government Employees Insurance Company (GEICO), efficient, accurate, and personal customer interactions are all part of the Service Department’s daily operating policies and procedures. As a major part of this operating strategy, change is often imperative to maintaining expected levels of efficiency and accuracy when servicing  insurance policies for GEICO customers. Service Agents are responsible for anywhere from 50-100 calls from policyholders per day. Developing a new system of self-service options for GEICO’s approximately 13 million policyholders nationwide help alleviate over-burdened call centers. In order to ensure that policyholders are able to complete needed transactions without a need to call a licensed agent, th e self-service system must include the same controls as the GEICO Agent’s systems. The duration of this system enhancement and development project will be no more than three months, beginning on August 1, 2014. Distribution of the system will be completed over the following two month period and will be fully on-line in all Regional Office Service Centers by January 1, 2015. Financial resources are unlimited, but will be approved at the discretion of the Approving Authority on a case by case basis. There will be a total of 22 participants in this system development project. The Regional Vice President in charge Region X as the overall Approving Authority for the project. All changes to the established project requirements will be sent via the Project Manager through her office for final approval. A Project Manager who is a current Team Leader / Supervisor of Employees is needed to oversee the project directly. This Team Leader will be chosen by the Regional Vice President. Updated monthly statistics through the month of June, 2014 will determine the best candidate for assignment to this project. In the interest of team integrity, the five Licensed Agents assigned to this Team Leader will be selected to serve as the Working Group of the project and will be pulled from regular floor duties for the duration of the project. This group will be responsible for providing performance and safety measures, system input requirements, and accuracy testing through periodic live reviews of the system. A five person Software and Systems Development Team (SSDT) of Information Technology Office Agents (ITOA) will be responsible for the creation of the  new Internet-based system. Taking inputs from the Working Group members, a system will be written and distributed to all GEICO Regional Offices upon completion of testing and final approval. In addition to the trained professionals assigned to this project, a small sampling of ten customers (Product Testers) from the Tucson area will be participating in the testing and improvement phase of the project to ensure simplicity and accuracy of use for the new system. These testers will receive no formal training on the new system. The only outside input provided will be a data entry sheet containing information for the customer to input / edit on training accounts to test the user-friendliness of the final interface before full distribution. These product testers will also be given satisfaction questionnaires throughout the duration of the testing period from October 1 – October 15. The Product Testers will work from 8AM – 5 PM, with a one-hour lunch break, Monday – Friday. The Product Testers will be paid $600 (before taxation) at the end of the two week testing period. REPORTING REQUIREMENTS The Project Manager will report bi-weekly to the Approving Authority directly with performance updates and any changes to the project Scope. Updates to project objective statuses will be included. These objectives are: Develop a user-friendly policy management system. Test the new system. Identify bugs, inefficiencies, and needed control measures to be built into the new system. Implement needed changes and control measures. Develop a training model using a closed operating system with identical functionality as the production system. Train all employees to use the new system. Put the new system into operation across the GEICO organization. Release the self-service version to policyholders through GEICO’s website at GEICO.com Market the new process to current and prospective policyholders throughout the country. RECORD KEEPING Upon completion of the project, a final report (summary of all tasks), changes, and improvements to the original scope of the project is compiled and turned in to the Approving Authority and kept on file for three years in accordance with State Insurance Regulations. All documents and records kept throughout the creation and testing process will be collected, scanned for sensitive information, and all non-essential pieces will be destroyed. Essential project â€Å"keeper† documents containing sensitive information and company procedures will be edited and stored with the final summary document for three years. EVALUATION CRITERIA Upon completion of the project, a final report (summary of all tasks), changes, and improvements to the original scope of the project is compiled and turned in to the Approving Authority and kept on file for three years in accordance with State Insurance Regulations. All documents and records kept throughout the creation and testing process will be collected, scanned for sensitive information, and all non-essential pieces will be destroyed. Essential project â€Å"keeper† documents containing sensitive information and company procedures will be edited and stored with the final summary document for three years. CONCLUSION Through effective use of the Proposal and the Project Planning Processes, change can be implemented across any size organization effectively and efficiently. Accurate identification of the purpose and possible problems when writing a Project Proposal will increase the chances of efficient and effective change.

Acquisition in Multinational Coperation Essay

Purpose – This conceptual paper aims to draw upon recent complexity and organizational psychology literature to examine conï ¬â€šict episodes, exploring the limitations of the predominant research paradigm that treats conï ¬â€šict episodes as occurring in sequence, as discrete isolated incidents. Design/methodology/approach – The paper addresses a long-standing issue in conï ¬â€šict management research, which is that the predominant typology of conï ¬â€šict is confusing. The complexity perspective challenges the fundamental paradigm, which has dominated research in the conï ¬â€šict ï ¬ eld, in which conï ¬â€šict episodes occur in sequence and in isolation, with managers using one predominant form of conï ¬â€šict resolution behavior. Findings – The ï ¬ ndings are two-fold: ï ¬ rst, the behavioral strategies adopted in the management of these conï ¬â€šicts will be highly complex and will be determined by a number of inï ¬â€šuencing factors; and second, this moves theory beyond the two dimensional duel concern perspective, in that the adaptable manager dealing with these multiple, simultaneous conï ¬â€šicts will also need to consider the possible implications of their chosen strategy along with the changing micro environment in which they operate. Originality/value – This paper adds value to the ï ¬ eld of conï ¬â€šict theory by moving beyond two dimensions and exploring a sequential contingency perspective for conï ¬â€šict management within the organization. It argues that multiple conï ¬â€šict episodes can occur simultaneously, requiring managers to use differing behaviors for successful conï ¬â€šict management. Keywords Conï ¬â€šict management, Conï ¬â€šict resolution, Organizational conï ¬â€šict, Individual behaviour, Interpersonal relations Paper type Conceptual paper International Journal of Conï ¬â€šict Management Vol. 21 No. 2, 2010 pp. 186-201 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1044-4068 DOI 10.1108/10444061011037404 Introduction It is now over 40 years since Louis Pondy (1967) wrote his seminal article on conï ¬â€šict within the organization and its management and almost 20 years since his reï ¬â€šections on his earlier work were published (Pondy, 1989)[1]. In 1967 Pondy established what was for two decades the generally accepted paradigm of conï ¬â€šict: that conï ¬â€šict episodes occur as temporary disruptions to the otherwise cooperative relationships which make up the organization (Pondy, 1967). In his subsequent reï ¬â€šections on his earlier work and that of others, Pondy proposed that conï ¬â€šict is an inherent feature of organizational life, rather than an occasional breakdown of cooperation (Pondy, 1989). This radically challenged the previous paradigm. Indeed, Pondy (1989) even suggested that research into the phenomenon of cooperation within the organization could be beneï ¬ cial in providing further insight into conï ¬â€šict within the organization, implying that it was cooperation, not conï ¬â€šict, which was the anomalous state requiring investigation. Yet, for almost two decades, Pondy’s conceptualization of conï ¬â€šict as a natural state for the organization has remained largely unexplored despite the emergence of a complexity perspective which explores multiple elements of the conï ¬â€šict situation or cooperative state. One possible reason why Pondy’s challenge has not been answered is that some confusion has arisen over the terms and typologies used for the classiï ¬ cation of conï ¬â€šict episodes. Consequently, debates about conï ¬â€šict structure or composition have tended to dominate the research agenda. The potential for confusion arising from these various conï ¬â€šict classiï ¬ cations will be discussed in this paper. Where conï ¬â€šict management behaviors have been studied, researchers have tended to focus on a two-dimensional approach or â€Å"dual concern theory† model (Thomas, 1976) which suggests that individuals adopt conï ¬â€šict management behaviors based on their perceived self interests and those of others; i.e. concern for self (competitive behaviors) versus concern for other (accommodating behaviors). Although this approach to the research of conï ¬â€šict and its management ï ¬ ts well with Pondy’s (1967) original paradigm, it is challenged by the complexity perspective that has emerged in psychology research. The complexity perspective of intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict maintains that interpersonal relationships are more complex than hitherto thought, and that the unfolding conï ¬â€šict is inï ¬â€šuenced by a wide variety of conditions. Moreover the complexity perspective encourages the consideration of simultaneous complexity (more than one event occurring simultaneously) and of how the mode of conï ¬â€šict management affects the outcomes (Munduate et al., 1999). This fresh perspective has enabled researchers to examine the point at which behavioral style is changed and the effect on the conï ¬â€šict episode (Olekalns et al., 1996) and to look at how different behaviors are combined (Janssen et al., 1999). With the recent developments in the complexity perspective of conï ¬â€šict management research (Van de Vliert et al., 1997; Munduate et al., 1999), the time has come to further explore the possible consequences of the complexity perspective: whether it is in fact the case that conï ¬â€šict is an inherent condition within the organization (Pondy, 1989); whether conï ¬â€šict episodes do not occur in isolation but occur frequently and simultaneously (Euwema et al., 2003); and whether complex sequences of adaptive behaviors are required to continually manage the constantly changing intraorganizational, conï ¬â€šict environment. Before we can do this, and to provide a common ground for discourse, we ï ¬ rst need to examine some of the theories around conï ¬â€šict typology that have arisen in the psychology and management literature and which may be the cause of some confusion. Conï ¬â€šict terms and typologies â€Å"Conï ¬â€šict† is a broad construct that has been studied extensively across several disciplines covering a wide range of social interactions. Previous conï ¬â€šict research has identiï ¬ ed four main levels of conï ¬â€šict in the context of human behavior and relationships as summarized by Lewecki et al. (2003): (1) Intergroup conï ¬â€šicts between groups of individuals which can range in size and complexity due to the many relationships involved, including international conï ¬â€šict between nations. (2) Intragroup or intraorganizational conï ¬â€šicts arising within smaller groups which comprise the organization. A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory 187 IJCMA 21,2 188 (3) Interpersonal conï ¬â€šict; that is, conï ¬â€šict at an individual level, conï ¬â€šict between individuals, or conï ¬â€šict between an individual and a group. (4) Intrapersonal conï ¬â€šict on a personal level, where the conï ¬â€šict occurs in one’s own mind. Although these four levels of conï ¬â€šict all appear across both the psychology and management literature, it is the third level (interpersonal conï ¬â€šicts within the organization or the reactions an individual or group has to the perception that two parties have aspirations that cannot be achieved simultaneously) that has become the central ï ¬ eld of research within the organization (Putnem and Poole, 1987). In 1992, Thomas proposed a simpliï ¬ ed deï ¬ nition of interpersonal conï ¬â€šict as the process which begins when an individual or group feels negatively affected by another individual or group. The conï ¬â€šict consists of a perception of barriers to achieving one’s goals (Thomas, 1992). More recently, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict has been deï ¬ ned as an individual’s perceptions of incompatibilities, differences in views or interpersonal incompatibility (Jehn, 1997). Conï ¬â€šict at this level has mostly been seen as adversarial and as having a negative effect upon relationships (Ford et al., 1975). These deï ¬ nitions presuppose that an opposition or incompatibility is perceived by both parties, that some interaction is taking place, and that both parties are able to inï ¬â€šuence or get involved – that is. that there is some degree of interdependence (Medina et al., 2004). Interpersonal conï ¬â€šict could arise within organizations where, for example, customer-facing departments such as Sales make promises to customers that other departments then have to deliver. In this domain of intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict, both Pondy’s (1966, 1967) work and recent developments adopting the complexity perspective are of particular interest This broad area of intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict has been further subdivided into two types: relationship conï ¬â€šict and task conï ¬â€šict. Relationship conï ¬â€šict arises between the actors through their subjective emotional positions, whereas task conï ¬â€šict relates primarily to the more objective tasks or issues involved (Reid et al., 2004). A series of studies conï ¬ rmed this duality between relationship and task. Wall and Nolan (1986) identiï ¬ ed â€Å"people oriented† versus â€Å"task oriented† conï ¬â€šict. In the early to mid-1990s Priem and Price (1991), Pinkley and Northcraft (1994), Jehn (1995) and Sessa (1996) all identiï ¬ ed â€Å"relationship† and â€Å"task† as discrete aspects of conï ¬â€šict. The picture became rather more complicated in the late 1990s. In 1995 Amason et al. redeï ¬ ned conï ¬â€šict types as â€Å"affective† and â€Å"cognitive† and in 1999 Van de Vliert further redeï ¬ ned these types as â€Å"task† and â€Å"person† conï ¬â€šict. In working toward a more comprehensive model of intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict, Jameson (1999) suggested three dimensions for conï ¬â€šict: (1) content; (2) relational; and (3) situational. The content dimension encompasses the previously discussed conï ¬â€šict types (affective, cognitive, relationship etc) while the relational dimension considers the subjective, perceived variables within the relationships of the actors involved: . trust; . status; . . . . A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory seriousness; degree of interdependence; record of success; and the number of actors involved. The situational dimension examines the variables which may be most relevant in selecting an appropriate conï ¬â€šict management strategy. These include time pressure, the potential impact of the conï ¬â€šict episode, the degree of escalation and the range of options available in the management of the conï ¬â€šict episode (Jameson, 1999). Meanwhile, Sheppard (1992) criticized the multiplicity of terms that were being used to describe types of interpersonal conï ¬â€šict, and the needless confusion that this caused. The result of the many approaches described above is that there is no general model for the typology of interpersonal conï ¬â€šict within the organization. In the absence of such a model, other researchers have taken different approaches, using the antecedents of the conï ¬â€šict episode to describe conï ¬â€šict types. Examples of this proliferation include role conï ¬â€šict (Walker et al., 1975), gender conï ¬â€šict (Cheng, 1995) and goal conï ¬â€šict (Tellefsen and Eyuboglu, 2002). This proliferation of terms or typologies has unsurprisingly led to confusion, most noticeably with the term â€Å"interpersonal conï ¬â€šict† being used to describe purely relationship or emotional conï ¬â€šict (Bradford et al., 2004) or conï ¬â€šict being deï ¬ ned in terms of emotion only, adding to the wide range of terms already used (Bodtker and Jameson, 2001). Thus, at a time when international, interorganizational, intraorganizational, interpersonal and intrapersonal conï ¬â€šicts are being extensively studied with conï ¬â€šict deï ¬ ned and operationalized in a variety of ways, no widely accepted and consistent model has emerged to shape conï ¬â€šict research (Reid et al., 2004). Table I summarizes the many different conï ¬â€šict typologies that have been proposed. Table I illustrates that relationship and task conï ¬â€šict are almost universally accepted as distinct types of interpersonal conï ¬â€šict by psychology and management researchers. Date Author(s) Conï ¬â€šict typology 1986 1991 1994 1995 1995 1996 1996 1997 1999 1999 2000 2000 2002 2003 2003 2004 2004 2005 Wall and Nolan Priem and Price Pinkley and Northcraft Jehn Amason et al. Sessa Amason Amason and Sapienza Jameson Janssen et al. Friedman et al. Jehn and Chatman Tellefsen and Eyuboglu Bradford et al. De Dreu and Weingart Reid et al. Tidd et al. Guerra et al. People oriented, task oriented Relationship, task Relationship, task Relationship, task Cognitive, affective Task, person oriented Affective, cognitive Affective, cognitive Content, relational, situational Task, person oriented Relationship, task Task, relationship, process Goal conï ¬â€šicts Interpersonal, task Relationship, task Relationship, task Relationship, task Relationship, task 189 Table I. A summary of the typologies of conï ¬â€šict IJCMA 21,2 190 In addition, many researchers have identiï ¬ ed a third type of conï ¬â€šict which relates to the environment in which managers operate, described as situational conï ¬â€šict ( Jameson, 1999) or process conï ¬â€šict ( Jehn and Chatman, 2000). We believe that a consistent conï ¬â€šict typology is called for, to aid future research into the complex nature of intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict. In this paper, we propose that future researchers should recognize three types of interpersonal conï ¬â€šict. However, since the terms â€Å"relationship† and â€Å"task† are vulnerable to misinterpretation we advocate using the terms affective and cognitive (following Amason, 1996 and Amason and Sapienza, 1997), in conjunction with process (Jehn and Chatman, 2000), to describe the three types of interpersonal conï ¬â€šict. These terms, which reï ¬â€šect the more speciï ¬ c terminology used in the psychology literature, are deï ¬ ned in Table II. As Table II shows, the t ypology we propose is as follows. Affective Conï ¬â€šict is a term describing conï ¬â€šicts concerned with what people think and feel about their relationships including such dimensions as trust, status and degree of interdependence (Amason and Sapienza, 1997). Cognitive Conï ¬â€šict describes conï ¬â€šicts concerned with what people know and understand about their task, roles and functions. Process Conï ¬â€šict relates to conï ¬â€šicts arising from the situational context, the organization structure, strategy or culture (Amason and Sapienza, 1997; Jehn and Chatman, 2000). Using this typology for conï ¬â€šict between individuals or groups of individuals within the organization avoids confusion over the use of the terms â€Å"interpersonal†, â€Å"person† or â€Å"relationship† often used when referring to affective conï ¬â€šict, while task conï ¬â€šict is clearly distinguished from process conï ¬â€šict, addressing all the issues previously outlined. These terms will therefore be used throughout the remainder of t his paper. Having argued that taxonomic confusion has hindered conï ¬â€šict research through the misuse of existing taxonomies (Bradford et al., 2004) or where language has resulted in the use of different terms to describe the same conï ¬â€šict type (see Table I), we now move on to consider the implications or consequences of intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict and whether it is always negative or can have positive consequences (De Dreu, 1997). Consequences of conï ¬â€šict: functional or dysfunctional? Some researchers exploring attitudes towards conï ¬â€šict have considered the consequences of conï ¬â€šict for individual and team performance (Jehn, 1995) and have found that interpersonal conï ¬â€šict can have either functional (positive) or dysfunctional (negative) outcomes for team and individual performance (e.g. Amason, 1996). Moreover, the consequences of conï ¬â€šict can be perceived and felt in different ways by different actors experiencing the conï ¬â€šict episode (Jehn and Chatman, 2000). Thus, conï ¬â€šict is situationally and perceptually relative. Conï ¬â€šict type Affective Table II. A proposed taxonomy of conï ¬â€šict Deï ¬ nition Conï ¬â€šicts concerned with what people think and feel about their relationships with other individuals or groups Cognitive Conï ¬â€šicts concerned with what people know and understand about their task Process Conï ¬â€šicts arising from the situational context, the organization structure, strategy or culture The traditional view of conï ¬â€šict takes the view that conï ¬â€šict exists in opposition to co-operation and that conï ¬â€šict is wholly dysfunctional, putting the focus on resolution rather than management (e.g. Pondy, 1966). This perspective can be traced forward to more recent work. Where conï ¬â€šict is deï ¬ ned as the process which begins when one person or group feels negatively affected by another (Thomas, 1992), there is an implication of obstruction to either party achieving their goals, which is readily interpreted negatively. This can result in conï ¬â€šict avoidance or suppression of conï ¬â€šict management behavior, leading to perceived negative consequences on team or individual performance (De Dreu, 1997). Negatively-perceived conï ¬â€šict episodes can increase tension and antagonism between individuals and lead to a lack of focus on the required task (Saavedra et al., 1993; Wall and Nolan, 1986) while avoidance and suppression can also have long term nega tive consequences such as stiï ¬â€šing creativity, promoting groupthink and causing an escalation in any existing conï ¬â€šict (De Dreu, 1997). Not surprisingly, where interdependence is negative (where one party wins at the expense of the other although they have some dependency in their relationship) any conï ¬â€šict will be viewed negatively (Janssen et al., 1999). The perception of conï ¬â€šict will also be negative where the conï ¬â€šict is personal, resulting in personality clashes, increased stress and frustration. This type of relationship conï ¬â€šict can impede the decision-making process as individuals focus on the personal aspects rather than the task related issues (Jehn, 1995). In contrast to the somewhat negative perception of intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict outlined above, more recent conï ¬â€šict management theory has begun to suggest that certain types of conï ¬â€šict can have a positive effect upon relationships and that the best route to this outcome is through acceptance of, and effective management of, inevitable conï ¬â€šict, rather than through conï ¬â€šict avoidance or suppression (De Dreu, 1997). When individuals are in conï ¬â€šict they have to address major issues, be more creative, and see different aspects of a problem. These challenges can mitigate groupthink and stimulate creativity (De Dreu, 1997). Naturally, where there is high positive interdependence (an agreeable outcome for both parties), the conï ¬â€šict episode will be viewed much more positively (Janssen et al., 1999). Moreover, Jehn (1995) has suggested that task- and issue-based cognitive con ï ¬â€šict can have a positive effect on team performance. Groups who experience cognitive conï ¬â€šict have a greater understanding of the assignments at hand and are able to make better decisions in dealing with issues as they arise (Simons and Peterson, 2000). For example, research has shown that, when individuals are exposed to a â€Å"devil’s advocate†, they are able to make better judgments than those not so exposed (Schwenk, 1990). Schulz-Hardt et al. (2002) suggested that groups make better decisions where they started in disagreement rather than agreement. In these examples, conï ¬â€šict has a functional (useful and positive) outcome. We have argued that the notion of functional conï ¬â€šict has shifted the ï ¬ eld of conï ¬â€šict research away from conï ¬â€šict resolution and towards consideration of the management behaviors which can be adopted in dealing with conï ¬â€šict in order to gain the best possible outcome (De Dreu, 1997; Euwema et al., 2003 ). Next, we examine research into conï ¬â€šict management behaviors and explore some of the managerial tools that have been developed to help managers to deal with intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict. Conï ¬â€šict management behaviors Conï ¬â€šict management can be deï ¬ ned as the actions in which a person typically engages, in response to perceived interpersonal conï ¬â€šict, in order to achieve a desired goal A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory 191 IJCMA 21,2 192 (Thomas, 1976). Demonstrably, conï ¬â€šict management pays off: previous research has indicated that it is the way in which conï ¬â€šict episodes are addressed which determines the outcome (Amason, 1996). However, there is disagreement between researchers as to the degree to which managers can and do adopt different conï ¬â€šict management behaviors. Previous research has considered three different approaches: the â€Å"one best way† perspective (Sternberg and Soriano, 1984); the contingency or situational perspective (Thomas, 1992; Munduate et al., 1999; Nicotera, 1993); and the complexity or conglomerated perspective (Van de Vliert et al., 1999; Euwema et al., 2003). Arguably the simplest perspective on conï ¬â€šict management behavior is the â€Å"one best way† perspective (Sternberg and Soriano, 1984), which agues that one conï ¬â€šict management style or behavior (collaboration) is more effective than any other. However, it argues that individuals have a parti cular preferred behavioral predisposition to the way in which they handle conï ¬â€šict. Thus, from the â€Å"one best way† perspective, the conï ¬â€šict-avoiding manager may have a behavioral predisposition to avoidance strategies, whereas the accommodating manager may prefer accommodating solutions. In this paradigm, the most constructive solution is considered to be collaboration, since collaboration is always positively interdependent – it has a joint best outcome, generally described as â€Å"win/win† (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). The â€Å"one best way† approach suggests that a more aggressive, competitive, negatively interdependent approach (in fact, any conï ¬â€šict management approach other than collaborative) can result in suboptimal outcomes (Janssen et al., 1999). However, the â€Å"one best way† perspective raises more questions than it answers. It does not explain how managers are able to collaborate if they have a different behavioral predisposition, nor does it provide evidence that collaboration always produces the best outcome (Thomas, 1992). A more general problem with the â€Å"one best way† approach is that it may not be very useful: if managers truly have little or no control over their approach to conï ¬â€šict management, the practical applications are limited. The â€Å"one best way† perspective does not consider the passage of time, that behaviors could be changed or modiï ¬ ed during any interaction, nor the effect any previous encounters may have on the current experience (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). Moving beyond the â€Å"one best way† perspective, in which only collaborative behaviors are considered to provide the most desirable outcome, the contingency perspective maintains that the optimal conï ¬â€šict management behavior depends on the speciï ¬ c conï ¬â€šict situation, and that what is appropriate in one situation may not be appropriate in another (Thomas, 1992). In this paradigm, the best approach is dependent upon the particular set of circumstances. The implications, which are very different to the â€Å"one best way† perspective, are that individuals can and should select the conï ¬â€šict management behavior that is most likely to produce the desired outcome. Thus, conï ¬â€šict management behaviors are regarded as a matter of preference (rather than innate, as in the â€Å"one best way† view), and the outcome is dependent on the selection of the most appropriate mode of conï ¬â€šict management behavior. Until recently, conï ¬â€šict research has been heavily inï ¬â€šuenced by the â€Å"one best way† and contingency perspectives, focusing on the effectiveness of a single mode of conï ¬â€šict management behavior (primarily collaboration) during a single conï ¬â€šict episode (Sternberg and Soriano, 1984). Thus the â€Å"one best way† and contingency perspectives do not necessarily o ffer a real-world view in which managers both can and do change their behaviors: adapting to the situation; perhaps trying different approaches to break a deadlock or to improve their bargaining position; taking into account changing circumstances in the microenvironment; and the subsequent inï ¬â€šuence upon the actions of individuals involved in any conï ¬â€šict episode (Olekalns et al., 1996). A fresh approach is provided by the complexity perspective, which characterizes conï ¬â€šicts as being dynamic and multi-dimensional. In such circumstances, the best behavioral style in dealing with any one conï ¬â€šict episode may vary during, or between, conï ¬â€šict episodes (Medina et al., 2004; Nicotera, 1993). For conï ¬â€šict in a complex world, neither the â€Å"one best way† nor the contingency perspective would necessarily produce optimal results. If conï ¬â€šict does not occur discretely and individually (Pondy, 1992a), existing approaches may not describe the world as managers actually experience it. Arguably, these approaches have artiï ¬ cially limited conï ¬â€šict research to a ï ¬â€šat, two-dimensional model. To address the shortcomings of traditional research and to incorporate the complexity perspective into conï ¬â€šict management theory, we need to move beyond two dimensions (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). Beyond two dimensions of conï ¬â€šict management theory Recent work by Van de Vliert et al. (1997) and Medina et al. (2004) has expanded current theory through consideration of the complexity perspective. The complexity perspective argues that any reaction to a conï ¬â€šict episode consists of multiple behavioral components rather than one single conï ¬â€šict management behavior. In the complexity perspective, using a mixture of accommodating, avoiding, competing, compromising and collaborating behaviors throughout the conï ¬â€šict episode is considered to be the rule rather than the exception (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). To date, studies taking a complexity approach to conï ¬â€šict management have adopted one of three different complexity perspectives. The ï ¬ rst examines simultaneous complexity and how different combinations of behaviors affect the outcome of the conï ¬â€šict (Munduate et al., 1999). The second complexity approach focuses on the point of behavioral change and the outcome, examining either the behavioral phases through which the participants of a conï ¬â€šict episode pass, or apply temporal complexity to look at the point at which behavioral style changes and the effect on the conï ¬â€šict episode (Olekalns et al., 1996). The third approach is the sequential complexity or conglomerated perspective, which is concerned with the different modes of conï ¬â€šict management behavior, how they are combined, and at what point they change during the interaction. The application of the complexity perspective to conï ¬â€šict management research has revealed that managers use more than the ï ¬ ve behaviors suggested by the â€Å"one best way† perspective to manage conï ¬â€šict. In their study of conglomerated conï ¬â€šict management behavior, Euwema et al. (2003) argued that the traditional approach under-represents the individual’s assertive modes of behavior and have as a result added â€Å"confronting† and â€Å"process controlling†, making seven possible behaviors: (1) competing; (2) collaborating; (3) avoiding; (4) compromising; (5) accommodating; A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory 193 IJCMA 21,2 194 (6) confronting; and (7) process controlling. Weingart et al. (1990) identiï ¬ ed two types of sequential pattern: Reciprocity, responding to the other party with the same behavior; and Complementarity, responding with an opposing behavior. Applying a complexity perspective, the effectiveness of complementarity or reciprocity behaviors will be contingent upon the situation, the micro-environment, the number of conï ¬â€šict episodes, and the types of conï ¬â€šict present. The sequential pattern may in itself be complex, being dependent both upon the current situation and on varying behaviors throughout the interaction. A further, often unrecognized implication of complexity in conï ¬â€šict is that each conï ¬â€šict episode could be unique, being composed of different proportions of each of the affective, cognitive and process conï ¬â€šict types (Jehn and Chatman, 2000). The implication for conï ¬â€šict management strategy and the choice of the most appropriate behavior is immense. Therefore, a new perspective is needed, in which conï ¬â€šict and the response to conï ¬â€šict is viewed as dynamic and changing over time, with each conï ¬â€šict episode having a unique composition requiring a speciï ¬ c but ï ¬â€šexible approach in order to obtain the best possible outcome. We propose that this might result in a manager changing behavior during a conï ¬â€šict episode, or indeed a manager adopting different behaviors for a number of conï ¬â€šict episodes occurring simultaneously. In the next section, we take all these complex factors into account and propose a single, dynamic and comprehensive model of conï ¬â€šict management behavior. Multiple, simultaneous conï ¬â€šict episodes We have shown that the ï ¬ eld of conï ¬â€šict has become entangled in multiple terms and that research into conï ¬â€šict management is struggling to reconcile two-dimensional models with the more complex situation encountered in the real world. A model is needed which considers the complexity of conï ¬â€šict episodes and separates conï ¬â€šict antecedents from conï ¬â€šict types, recognizing that conï ¬â€šict can relate to emotions and situations which have common antecedents. We propose that the way forward is to expand the conglomerated perspective into a sequential contingency perspective, in which the sequence of conï ¬â€šict management behaviors adopted is dependent upon a number of inï ¬â€šuencing factors in the micro-environment, the number of conï ¬â€šict episodes being dealt with, their composition, and changes in the behaviors of the actors involved. A sequential contingency perspective The sequential contingency perspective for intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict proposes the adoption of an alternative paradigm which is that conï ¬â€šict is ever-present and ever-changing in terms of its nature or composition; and that it is the way in which these continuous conï ¬â€šicts is managed which determines the outcome of any conï ¬â€šict episode and the nature of any subsequent conï ¬â€šicts. Figure 1 provides a visualization of Pondy’s (1992b) postmodern paradigm of conï ¬â€šict and provides a foundation for the investigation of complex, multiple, simultaneous, intraorganizational conï ¬â€šicts. This conceptual visualization of conï ¬â€šict within the organization provides a three-dimensional representation of conï ¬â€šict from the paradigm that conï ¬â€šict is an inherent feature of organizational life. It shows how, at any one given point in time, A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory 195 Figure 1. A conceptual visualization of multiple, simultaneous conï ¬â€šict there can be a number of conï ¬â€šict episodes experienced (y axis), each with different intensities (z axis) and duration (x axis). In addition, we have argued that each conï ¬â€šict episode will have a unique composition, being made up of different proportions of cognitive, affective and process elements. The implications for conï ¬â€šict management theory are twofold: ï ¬ rst, the behavioral strategies adopted in the management of these conï ¬â€šicts will be highly complex and will be determined by a number of inï ¬â€šuencing factors; and second, this moves theory beyond the two dimensional duel concern perspective, in that the adaptable manager dealing with these multiple, simultaneous conï ¬â€šicts will also need to consider the possible implications of their chosen strategy along with the changing micro environment in which they operate. Using this three-dimensional conceptual visualization of conï ¬â€šict within the organization we propose a sequential contingency model for managing interpersonal conï ¬â€šict within the organization (Figure 2). The basic elements of the framework in Figure 2 consider all the dimensions of conï ¬â€šict and its management as previously discussed: . the conï ¬â€šict episode characteristics, the type and composition of any conï ¬â€šict episode encountered (Amason, 1996; Jehn, 1995; Jehn, 1997; Pinkley and Northcraft, 1994); . the characteristics of the relationship(s) (Jehn, 1995); . the characteristics of the individuals involved; . the conï ¬â€šict management behaviors; and . the outcome of previous conï ¬â€šict episodes (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). IJCMA 21,2 196 Figure 2. A sequential contingency model for managing intra-organizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict The basic postulate of the model is that conï ¬â€šict is a constant and inherent condition of the organization (that is, that conï ¬â€šict episodes do not occur as isolated, anomalous incidents). Additionally, the effectiveness of the conï ¬â€šict management behaviors in terms of its functionality or dysfunctionality is contingent upon, and moderated by, the nature of the conï ¬â€šict, the characteristics of the individuals and relationships involved, and experience of previous conï ¬â€šict. Thus, this model provides a framework for dealing with multiple, simultaneous conï ¬â€šict episodes moving beyond the tradition two-dimensional approach. Future research To date there has been little empirical research into the degree to which individuals are able to adapt their behavior during an interaction, or on the value of the complexity perspective in dealing with complex intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict. The future research agenda needs to explore conï ¬â€šict through Pondy’s (1992b) alternative paradigm and expand on these theoretical ï ¬ ndings by investigating intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict in a number of ways. We therefore set out a research agenda framed in terms of four research propositions. First, taking the sequential contingency perspective and adopting Pondy’s (1989) alternative paradigm for conï ¬â€šict within the organization, research is needed to establish the occurrence of conï ¬â€šict. Pondy (1992b) argues that, rather than a sequence of discrete isolated incidents, conï ¬â€šict is an inherent condition of social interaction within the organization and that conï ¬â€šict episodes occur simultaneously not sequentially. This would imply that: P1a. Conï ¬â€šict is a constant condition of interorganizational, interpersonal relationships. A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory P1b. Multiple conï ¬â€šict episodes occur simultaneously. P1c. Conï ¬â€šict episodes are complex, having differing compositions of affective, cognitive and process elements which change over time. The complexity perspective recognizes that different conï ¬â€šict situations call for different management behaviors (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). This implies that managers can call upon a much wider range of approaches to conï ¬â€šict management than previously thought. Moreover there is a further implication, which is that managers are able to adapt their behavior during conï ¬â€šict episodes. Thus: P2a. Managers use different behaviors to manage multiple conï ¬â€šicts at any one time. P2b. Managers change their behavior over time during the same conï ¬â€šict episode. A substantial branch of recent conï ¬â€šict management research has focused on the outcomes of conï ¬â€šict and has suggested that not all conï ¬â€šict is negative (De Dreu, 1997; Simons and Peterson, 2000; Schultz-Hardt et al., 2002; Schwenk, 1990). Given this, we need a greater understanding of the effect that the behavior adopted has on the conï ¬â€šict experienced, whether it mitigated or agitated the situation, and the consequences for any subsequent conï ¬â€šict (Amason, 1996). Thus: P3a. The behaviors that managers use affect the outcome of the conï ¬â€šict. P3b. The behaviors that managers use affect subsequent conï ¬â€šicts. Finally, re-visiting Pondy’s (1989) alternative paradigm and incorporating the additional perspectives that come from consideration of conï ¬â€šict outcomes and the application of the complexity perspective, we argue that more research is needed into the relationship between the behaviors that managers adopt and whether these behaviors represent the conscious adaptation of an optimal approach to conï ¬â€šict management. Thus: P4. Conï ¬â€šict management involves adapting a set of behaviors through which a degree of co-operation is maintained, as opposed to the use of behavior(s) which resolve(s) discrete isolated incidents of conï ¬â€šict. Our purpose in setting out a new model and research agenda for conï ¬â€šict management research, together with a set of detailed research propositions, is to move the ï ¬ eld beyond the consideration of conï ¬â€šict episodes as discrete, isolated incidents and to encourage the investigation of different behaviors in different circumstances and their effectiveness. Future research needs to consider the complexity of conï ¬â€šict and adopt a research paradigm which considers the behavioral strategies within long term complex interpersonal relationships. Conclusion This paper has offered four contributions to the ï ¬ eld of conï ¬â€šict and conï ¬â€šict management. The ï ¬ rst is the clariï ¬ cation of conï ¬â€šict typologies set out in Table II. The 197 IJCMA 21,2 198 second contribution is the notion that business managers handle multiple and simultaneous conï ¬â€šict episodes that require different approaches to resolving them, so that the existing models proposed for conï ¬â€šict management are unlikely to chime with their actual experience. The third contribution is to map this in the form of a new theoretical model for conï ¬â€šict management (Figure 2). The fourth contribution is to use this theoretical model to set out a set of research propositions to shape research that will shed light on the real conï ¬â€šicts that managers have to face. Just 40 years on, and intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict theory itself appears to be in conï ¬â€šict. In order to resolve the apparent differences in research approach and perspective researchers need to establish some common ground upon which new theory can be empirically tested, allowing conï ¬â€šict management theory to move beyond two dimensions and to explore complexity whilst adding clarity. N ote 1. First presented at the Academy of Management Meeting, August 14, 1986. References Amason, A. and Sapienza, H. (1997), â€Å"The effects of top management team size and interaction norms on cognitive and affective conï ¬â€šict†, Journal of Management, Vol. 23 No. 4, pp. 495-516. Amason, A.C. (1996), â€Å"Distinguishing the effects of functional and dysfunctional conï ¬â€šict on strategic decision making: resolving a paradox for top management teams†, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 39 No. 1, pp. 123-48. Bodtker, A.M. and Jameson, J.K. 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(1995), â€Å"A multi-method examination of the beneï ¬ ts and detriments of intragroup conï ¬â€šict†, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 40 No. 2, pp. 256-82. Jehn, K.A. (1997), â€Å"A qualitative analysis of conï ¬â€šict types and dimensions in organizational groups†, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 42 No. 3, pp. 530-57. Jehn, K.A. and Chatman, J.A. (2000), â€Å"The inï ¬â€šuence of proportional and perceptual conï ¬â€šict composition on team performance†, International Journal of Conï ¬â€šict Management, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 56-73. Lewicki, R., Saunders, D., Barry, B. and Minton, J. (2003), Essentials of Negotiation, 3rd ed., McGraw Hill, Singapore. Medina, J.M., Dorado, M.A., de Cisneros, I.F.J., Arevalo, A. and Munduate, L. (2004), â€Å"Behavioral sequences in the effectiveness of conï ¬â€šict management†, Psychology in Spain, Vol. 8 No. 1, pp. 38-47. Munduate, L., Ganaza, J., Peiro, J.M. and Euwema, M. 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Pondy, L.R. (1989), â€Å"Reï ¬â€šections on organizational conï ¬â€šict†, Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 2 No. 2, pp. 94-8. Pondy, L.R. (1992a), â€Å"Historical perspectives and contemporary updates†, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 13 No. 3, pp. 253-5. Pondy, L.R. (1992b), â€Å"Reï ¬â€šections on organizational conï ¬â€šict†, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 13 No. 3, pp. 257-61. Priem, R.L. and Price, K.H. (1991), â€Å"Process and outcome expectations for the dialectical inquiry, devil’s advocacy, and consensus techniques of strategic decision making†, Group & Organization Studies, Vol. 16 No. 2, pp. 206-25. Putnem, L. and Poole, M.S. (1987), â€Å"Conï ¬â€šict and negotiation†, in Jablin, F.M., Putnam, L.L., Roberts, K.H. and Porter, L.W. (Eds), Handbook of Organizational Communication, Sage, Newbury Park, CA, pp. 549-99. Reid, D.A., Pullins, E.B., Plank, R.E. and Buehrer, R.E. (2004), â€Å"Measuring buyers’ perceptions of conï ¬â€šict in business-to-business sales interactions†, The Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, Vol. 19 No. 4, pp. 236-49. Saavedra, R., Earley, P.C. and Van Dyne, L. (1993), â€Å"Complex interdependence in task-performing groups†, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 78 No. 1, pp. 61-73. Sessa, V. (1996), â€Å"Using perspective taking to manage conï ¬â€šict and affect in teams†, The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, Vol. 32 No. 1, pp. 101-15. A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory 199 IJCMA 21,2 200 Schwenk, C.R. (1990), â€Å"Effects of devil’s advocacy and dialectical inquiry on decision making: a meta-analysis†, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Vol. 47 No. 1, pp. 161-77. Sheppard, B.H. (1992), â€Å"Conï ¬â€šict research as Schizophrenia: the many faces of organizational conï ¬â€šict†, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 13 No. 3, pp. 325-34. Schulz-Hardt, S., Jochims, M. and Frey, D. (2002), â€Å"Productive conï ¬â€šict in group decision making: genuine and contrived dissent as strategies to counteract biased information seeking†, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Vol. 88 No. 2, pp. 563-86. Simons, T.L. and Peterson, R.S. (2000), â€Å"Task conï ¬â€šict and relationship conï ¬â€šict in top management teams: the pivotal role of intragroup trust†, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 85 No. 1, pp. 102-11. Sternberg, R.J. and Soriano, L.J. (1984), â€Å"Styles of conï ¬â€šict resolution†, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 47 No. 1, pp. 115-21. Tellefsen, T. and Eyuboglu, N. (2002), â€Å"The impact of a salesperson’s in-house conï ¬â€šicts and inï ¬â€šuence attempts on buyer commitment†, Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 157-72. Thomas, K.W. (1992), â€Å"Conï ¬â€šict and conï ¬â€šict management: reï ¬â€šections and update†, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 13 No. 3, pp. 265-74. Thomas, K.W. (1976), â€Å"Conï ¬â€šict and conï ¬â€šict management†, in Dunnette, M.D. (Ed.), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Rand McNally, Chicago, IL, pp. 889-935. Van de Vliert, E., Nauta, A., Euwema, M.C. and Janssen, O. (1997), â€Å"The effectiveness of mixing problem solving and forcing†, Using Conï ¬â€šict in Organizations, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 38-52. Van de Vliert, E., Nauta, A., Giebels, E. and Janssen, O. (1999), â€Å"Constructive conï ¬â€šict at work†, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 20 No. 4, pp. 475-91. Walker, O.C., Churchill, G.A. Jr and Ford, N.M. (1975), â€Å"Organizational determinants of the industrial salesman’s role conï ¬â€šict and ambiguity†, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 39 No. 1, pp. 32-9. Wall, V.D. Jr and Nolan, L.L. (1986), â€Å"Perceptions of inequity, satisfaction, and conï ¬â€šict in task-oriented groups†, Human Relations, Vol. 39 No. 11, pp. 1033-52. Weingart, L.R., Thompson, L.L., Bazerman, H.H. and Caroll, J.S. (1990), â€Å"Tactical behavior and negotiation outcomes†, International Journal of Conï ¬â€šict Management, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 7-31. Further reading Amason, A.C., Hochwarter, W.A., Thompson, K.R. and Harrison, A.W. (1995), â€Å"Conï ¬â€šict: an important dimension in successful management teams†, Organizational Dynamics, Vol. 24 No. 2, pp. 20-35. Blake, R.R. and Mouton, J.S. (1964), The Managerial Grid, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, TX. De Dreu, C. and Weingart, L.R. (2003), â€Å"Task versus relationship conï ¬â€šict, team performance, and team member satisfaction: a meta-analysis†, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 88 No. 4, pp. 741-9. Deutsch, M. (1973), The Resolution of Conï ¬â€šict, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. Friedman, R., Tidd, S., Currall, S. and Tsai, J. (2000), â€Å"What goes around comes around: the impact of personal conï ¬â€šict style on work conï ¬â€šict and stress†, International Journal of Conï ¬â€šict Management, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 32-55. Guerra, M.J., Martinez, I., Munduate, L. and Medina, F.J. (2005), â€Å"A contingency perspective on the study of the consequences of conï ¬â€šict types: the role of organizational culture†, European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 157-76. Lewicki, R.J. and Sheppard, B.H. (1985), â€Å"Choosing how to intervene: factors affecting the use of process and outcome control in third party dispute resolution†, Journal of Occupational Behavior, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 49-64. Tidd, S.T., McIntyre, H. and Friedman, R.A. (2004), â€Å"The importance of role ambiguity and trust in conï ¬â€šict perception: unpacking the task conï ¬â€šict to relationship conï ¬â€šict linkage†, International Journal of Conï ¬â€šict Management, Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 364-84. About the authors  ´ James Speakman is Assistant Professor of International Negotiation at IESEG Business School, a member of Catholic University of Lille, where his attentions are focused on sales and negotiation. After working for 16 years in key account management sales he completed his PhD research at Cranï ¬ eld School of Management, where, using the Critical Incident Technique with an Interpretive Framework for coding to investigate intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict and the behavioral sequences adopted in the management of these complex interpersonal, intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict episodes. Other research interests include personal selling, past, present and future, where he conducted the US research for a multinational study on the future of personal selling and negotiation in context where his research interests include multi-cultural negotiation. James Speakman is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: I.Speakman@IESEG.FR Lynette Ryals specializes in key account management and marketing portfolio management, particularly in the area of customer proï ¬ tability. She is a Registered Representative of the London Stock Exchange and a Fellow of the Society of Investment Professionals. She is the Director of Cranï ¬ eld’s Key Account Management Best Practice Research Club, Director of the Demand Chain Management community and a member of Cranï ¬ eld School of Management’s Governing Executive. To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: reprints@emeraldinsight.com Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory 201

Ethernet as a Network Topology

Ethernet is the most widely used network topology. You can choose between bus and star topologies, and coaxial, twisted-pair, or fiber optic cabling. But with the right connective equipment, multiple Ethernet-based LANs (local area networks) can be linked together no matter which topology and/or cabling system they use. In fact, with the right equipment and software, even Token Ring, Apple Talk, and wireless LANs can be connected to Ethernet. The access method Ethernet uses is CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection). In this method, multiple workstation access a transmission medium (Multiple Access) by listening until no signals are detected (Carrier Sense). Then they transmit and check to see if more than one signal is present (Collision Detection). Each station attempts to transmit when it â€Å"believes† the network is free. If there is a collision, each station attempts to retransmit after a preset delay, which is different for each workstation. Collision detection is an essential part of the CSMA/CD access method. Each transmitting workstation needs to be able to detect that simultaneous (and therefore data-corrupting) transmission has taken place. If a collision is detected, a â€Å"jam† signal is propagated to all nodes. Each station that detects the Collision will wait some period of time and then try again. The two possible topologies for Ethernet are bus and star. The bus is the simplest (and the traditional) topology. Standard Ethernet (10BASE5) and Thin Ethernet (1OBASE2), both based on coaxial cable systems, use the bus. Twisted-Pair Ethernet (10BASE-T), based on unshielded twisted pair, and Fiberoptic Ethernet (FOIRL and 10BASE-FL), based on fiberoptic cable, use the star. In the following document we will try to explain what switched, Fast and Gigabit Ethernet are and make comparison of these three. LAN segments can be interconnected using bridges or routers. This works well when the traffic between segments is not high, but the interconnecting devices can become bottlenecks as the inter-segment traffic increases. Until recently, there were few ways to alleviate this problem. Now, however, a new class of interconnect products has emerged that can boost bandwidth on overburdened, traditional LANs while working with conventional cabling and adapters. These are known as LAN switches and are available for Ethernet, token ring, and FDDI. Switching technology is increasing the efficiency and speed of networks. This technology is making current systems more powerful, while at the same time facilitating the migration to faster networks. Understanding this technology is important; only then can we design and implement switched networks from the ground up. Switching directs network traffic in a very efficient manner – it sends information directly from the port of origin to only its destination port. Switching increases network performance, enhances flexibility and eases moves, adds and changes. Switching establishes a direct line of communication between two ports and maintains multiple simultaneous links between various ports. It proficiently manages network traffic by reducing media sharing – traffic is contained to the segment for which it is destined, be it a server, power user or workgroup. It is a cost-effective technique for increasing the overall network throughput and reducing congestion on a 10-Mbps network. Other than the addition of the switching hub, the Ethernet network remains the same the same network interface cards, the same client software, the same LAN cabling. There are three basic types of switches on the market at this time. They all perform the same basic function of dividing a large network into smaller sub-networks, however the manner in which they work internally is different. The types are known as Store and Forward, Cut Through, and Hybrid. A description of each type is shown below: A Store and Forward switch operates much as its name implies; first it stores each incoming frame in a buffer, checks it for errors, and if the frame is good it then forwards it to its destination port. A Cut Through switch operates differently than a Store and Forward type. In a Cut Through switch, the switch begins forwarding the frame immediately upon recieving the Destination Address. A Hybrid switch is an attempt to get the best of both Store and Forward switches and Cut Through switches. A Hybrid switch normally operates in Cut Through mode, but constantly monitors the rate at which invalid or damaged frames are forwarded. Designing A Switched Ethernet Network Designing a switched Ethernet network is actually a fairly straightforward process. The first step is to evaluate the traffic flow through you expect each user or group of users to generate. Analysis of the network will most likely find that you have a large number of users who are not going to place a heavy load on the network, and a smaller number of users who will place a large load on the network. We now group the Undemanding Users together on a hub and connect each hub to a switch port. Our more demanding users will usually be either directly connected to the switch, or if they are on hubs, fewer of them will be sharing each switch port than on the Undemanding User portion. One point which should be kept in mind regarding the design of a switched network is that traffic patterns vary by user and time. Therefore, just taking a â€Å"snapshot† of network usage patterns may lead to the wrong conclusions and result in a design, which is not optimal. It is always advisable to monitor usage patterns over a period of several days to a week to decide how to allocate network bandwidth optimally. Also, in almost all cases, a process of trial and error may be required to fully optimize the design.  · It is most important to get a switch that doesn't drop frames.  · Latency is a concern, but take it with a grain of salt. It will not make that much of a difference.  · Deciding between cut-through and store-and-forward depends on the application. Time-sensitive applications may need the former.  · Multimedia stations need dedicated switched ports.  · Most switch implementations consist of a switch with many stations (demand) and few servers (resources). It is best to keep a 1:1 ratio between demand and resource. Or, as mentioned earlier, increase the number of access pipes to the resource. (i.e., multiple lines into one server)  · Baseline your network prior to installing switches to determine the percentage of bad frames that already exist on the network.  · RMON (Remote Monitor) capability embedded in switch ports is may be costly, but it may save time and money in the long run.  · Certain switches support a flow control mechanism known as â€Å"back pressure.† This spoofs collision detection circuitry into thinking there is a collision and subsequently shifting to a back-off algorithm. This throttles back the sending station from transmitting any further data until the back-off process is complete. Switches with this feature need to be placed into the network carefully. What is 100baseT and Why is It Important? 100baseT, also known as Fast Ethernet, is simply a new version of Ethernet that runs at 100 million bits per second, which is ten times the speed of the existing Ethernet standard. 100baseT is becoming very popular because networks need more bandwidth due to more users and to demanding applications like graphics and networked databases. In fact, for many applications, standard Ethernet is simply too slow. For this reason, most experts believe that 100baseT will eclipse Ethernet as the dominant standard for Local Area Networks (LANs) during the next few years. A major advantage of all variants of 100baseT is software compatibility with standard Ethernet. This means that virtually all existing operating systems and application programs can take advantage of 100baseT capabilities without modification. One way fast Ethernet helps network managers make incremental upgrades at relatively low cost is by supporting most wiring and cabling media. The 100-Mbit/s specification can run over the Category 3 and Category 5 wiring already in place. It also runs over fiber optic cabling already installed. Fast Ethernet offers three media options: 100Base-T4 for half-duplex operation on four pairs of Category 3 UTP (unshielded twisted pair) or Category 5 UTP, 100Base-TX for half- or full-duplex operation on two pairs of data-grade Category 5 UTP or STP (shielded twisted pair), and 100Base-FX for half- or full-duplex transmission over fiber optic cable (the specification should be completed by year's end). As with other high-speed LAN technologies, fast Ethernet operates most efficiently on higher-grade media, such as Category 5 cabling or fiber. For Category 3-based installations, the 100Base-T4 media option uses four pairs of Category 3 UTP cabling. Data is transmitted on three pairs of wires, utilizing standard 8B/6T coding, which allows a lower signal frequency and decreases electromagnetic emissions. However, because the 100Base-T 4 standard uses the three pairs of wires for both transmission and reception, a 100Base-T4 network cannot accommodate full-duplex operation, which requires simultaneous dedication of wire pairs to transmission and reception. Work is still in progress on 100Base-FX fast Ethernet over fiber, but trials show it to be stable and capable of sustained 100-Mbit/s throughput at distances over 100 meters. Essentially, as a second means of transmitting data over fiber, 100Base-FX will be an alternative to FDDI. Moreover, because it will support full-duplex operation, 100Base-FX has the potential to become a significant backbone technology. 100BASE-T Fast Ethernet represents the best choice for customers interested in high speed networking for many reasons. There are 40 million 10 Mbps (Mega-bit per second) Ethernet users in the world today. 100BASE-T technology has evolved from this 10 Mbps world. By keeping the essential characteristics of the Ethernet technology (known as CSMA/CD) unchanged in the 100Mbit world, customers and installers can benefit from the body of Ethernet expertise developed over the years. The Ethernet industry expects that 100BASE-T will offer ten times the performance for twice the price of 10BASE-T. This improvement is made possible by advances in integrated circuit chip technology. As chips get smaller, they run faster, use less energy and are cheaper to produce. Early Ethernet controllers were made in 1.2 micron chips. State-of-the-art technology uses 0.45 micron chips. This represents an almost eight-fold reduction in chip size. 100BASE-T technology offers unparalleled ease of migration. You can decide how fast to upgrade, in what steps and stages, without massive â€Å"fork-lift† upgrades. Most 100BASE-T network cards will run as 10BASE-T and 100BASE-T cards. You will be able to buy cards now and run them at 10BASE-T speeds. Later when you are ready to upgrade to 100BASE-T you will not need to change your network cards. 100BASE-T is widely supported by many different companies. These include networking, systems, semiconductor, computer, integrator and research companies. Many of these companies have been supporting the industry effort through the Fast Ethernet Alliance. Wide support is essential for network users, ensuring a ready supply of interoperable products at competitive prices. The transmission systems of the 100BASE-T standard have high data integrity. It was shown that if 100 million 100BASE-T networks were run at maximum speed it would take over a billion times the age of the universe before there would be an undetected error. These error rates are significantly better than for 10BASE-T, Token Ring and FDDI. Recently, PC LAN adapter card manufacturers like 3Com and SMC have made very aggressive moves to further accelerate the adoption of 100baseT by pricing their 100baseTX products at only a slight premium compared to their standard Ethernet products. For example, a 3Com 100baseTX card is priced at $149, compared to $129 for their Ethernet card. Because virtually all 100baseTX cards also support 10baseT, this means that customers are being encouraged to buy the 100baseT capability even if they don't need it today. In other words, you can buy the 100baseTX card today and use it on your existing 10baseT network; when you upgrade your network to 100baseTX, you won't have to throw away your adapter cards. By all accounts, this strategy has been very successful. Gigabit Ethernet is an extension of the highly successful 10Mbps (10Base-T) Ethernet and 100Mbps (100Base-T) Fast Ethernet standards for network connectivity. IEEE has given approval to the Gigabit Ethernet project as the IEEE 802.3z Task Force. Gigabit Ethernet is fully compatible with the huge installed base of Ethernet and Fast Ethernet nodes. The original Ethernet specification was defined by the frame format and support for CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) protocol, full duplex, flow control, and management objects as defined by the IEEE 802.3 standard. Gigabit Ethernet will employ all of these specifications. In short, Gigabit Ethernet is the same Ethernet that managers already know and use, but 10 times faster than Fast Ethernet and 100 times faster than Ethernet. It also supports additional features that accommodate today's bandwidth-hungry applications and match the increasing power of the server and desktop. To support increasing bandwidth needs, Gigabit Ethernet incorporates enhancements that enable fast optical fiber connections at the physical layer of the network. It provides a tenfold increase in MAC (Media Access Control) layer data rates to support video conferencing, complex imaging and other data-intensive applications. Gigabit Ethernet compatibility with Ethernet preserves investments in administrator expertise and support staff training, while taking advantage of user familiarity. There is no need to purchase additional protocol stacks or invest in new middleware. Just as 100Mbps Fast Ethernet provided a low-cost, incremental migration from 10Mbps Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet will provide the next logical migration to 1000Mbps bandwidth. This section discusses the various topologies in which Gigabit Ethernet may be used. Gigabit Ethernet is essentially a â€Å"campus technology†, that is , for use as a backbone in a campus-wide network. It will be used between routers, switches and hubs. It can also be used to connect servers, server farms (a number of server machines bundled together), and powerful workstations. Essentially, four types of hardware are needed to upgrade an exiting Ethernet/Fast Ethernet network to Gigabit Ethernet :  · Gigabit Ethernet Network Interface Cards (NICs)  · Aggregating switches that connect a number of Fast Ethernet segments to Gigabit Ethernet  · Gigabit Ethernet repeaters ( or Buffered Distributors) The five most likely upgrade scenarios are given below : 1.Upgrading server-switch connections Most networks have centralized file servers and compute servers A server gets requests from a large number of clients. Therefore, it needs more bandwidth. Connecting servers to switches with Gigabit Ethernet will help achieve high speed access to servers. . This is perhaps the simplest way of taking advantage of Gigabit Ethernet. 2.Upgrading switch-switch connections Another simple upgrade involves upgrading links between Fast Ethernet switches to Gigabit Ethernet links between 100/1000 Mbps switches. 3.Upgrading a Fast Ethernet backbone A Fast Ethernet backbone switch aggregates multiple 10/100 Mbps switches. It can be upgraded to a Gigabit Ethernet switch which supports multiple 100/1000 Mbps switches as well as routers and hubs which have Gigabit Ethernet interfaces. Once the backbone has been upgraded, high performance servers can be connected directly to the backbone. This will substantially increase throughput for applications which require high bandwidth. 4.Upgrading High Performance Workstations As workstations get more and more powerful, higher bandwidth network connections are required for the workstations. Current high-end PCs have buses which can pump out more than 1000 Mbps. Gigabit Ethernet can be used to connect such high speed machines. Gigabit Ethernet will be an ideal solution for many of the networking challenges confronting MIS departments today. With businesses implementing more powerful technologies like super-fast servers and data-intensive applications such as video streaming, videoconferencing, or high-speed file backups, the new Gigabit Ethernet standard will go a long way toward adding significant bandwidth at reasonable costs. The following explains some of the key advantages Gigabit Ethernet will provide. Gigabit Ethernet will offer a dramatic increase (as much as a hundredfold) in pure bandwidth to help organizations meet the challenges of overburdened or growing network infrastructures. Gigabit throughput will greatly relieve pressures on LAN backbones while providing both the scalability and speed users need to run data-intensive applications productively. When gigabit data rates become available, firms will be able to greatly expedite large file transfers between servers and other devices. Mirroring the price and performance benefits that Fast Ethernet brought to Ethernet networking, Gigabit Ethernet will offer ten times greater performance than today†s Fast Ethernet at two to three times the cost. The working groups are selecting technologies, such as the Fibre Channel physical layer for fiber, with these specific cost targets in mind. Gigabit Ethernet will maintain the 802.3 and Ethernet standard frame format, as well as 802.3 managed object specifications. As a result, organizations can easily upgrade to gigabit speeds while preserving existing applications; operating systems; protocols such as IP, IPX, and AppleTalk; and network management platforms and tools. Managing Gigabit Ethernet networks upgraded from Fast Ethernet backbones will be simple and easy because the new technology requires no learning curve or training for MIS staffs. By offering backward compatibility with existing 10/100 Ethernet standards, Gigabit Ethernet will provide the same outstanding investment protection that Fast Ethernet offered. When upgrading to gigabit performance, companies will maintain existing wiring, operating systems, protocols, drivers, and desktop applications. No training is required for users or network managers, and network management tools and applications will remain intact. Administrators will be able to keep existing tried-and-tested hardware, software, and management practices while providing-with minimal risk and cost-the networking functionality and performance their organizations require. Gigabit Ethernet is the third generation Ethernet technology offering a speed of 1000 Mbps. It is fully compatible with existing Ethernets, and promises to offer seamless migration to higher speeds. Existing networks will be able to upgrade their performance without having to change existing wiring, protocols or applications. Gigabit Ethernet is expected to give existing high speed technologies such as ATM and FDDI a run for their money. The IEEE is working on a standard for Gigabit Ethernet, which is expected to be out by the beginning of 1998. A standard for using Gigabit Ethernet on twisted pair cable is expected by 1999.

Scholarship Appeal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Scholarship Appeal - Essay Example I eventually found the load to be highly demanding; as such, I withdrew from the class to avoid generating a low grade. Regardless of the course withdrawal, the challenging academic requirements caused my inability to meet the GPA requirements of my scholarship. I am hereby appealing to the committee to re-consider sustaining my scholarship with the firm commitment that I would work fervently to meet and maintain the required GPA. I am hereby providing the details: Other confounding events and circumstances apparently rationalized my inability to meet the GPA requirement. One of the main reasons that I attended the University of Louisville was because it was in close proximity to where my parents lived. My parents understood that I was going to College at a younger age than all my peers and they believed that I still needed a support system at least for my first full year at the University. However, because of great job opportunities in Texas for my parents, they decided that since I obtained a good GPA during my first semester, I was stable enough to be left in another state by myself. I got a job as a hostess at Griff’s restaurant to augment the financial resources I had to support living alone and studying, at the same time. With the time allocated for work, there was evidently lesser time allotted for studying and going to REACH sessions. As soon as I started to see my grades suffer detrimentally, I decided to stop the job. I gradually improved over time with my test grades but the first two test scores were way too low for me to eventually make at least a B in the class. As such, the significantly low test scores evidently caused my GPA to drop. Transportation was also a big issue for me because my parents used to accommodate my transportation requirements. With their relocation, I had no way of attending deaf events for my ASL class. ASL students were required to attend 10 hours of deaf events but I was only able to attain 4

Writer's choose Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Writer's choose - Research Paper Example Many archaeologists, towards the end of the 1980s, explained that the political organization of the city was structured in a "multepal" system where political ruling was through the council made up of members of ruling lineages. In terms of economy, Chichen Itza was a major player; this is because it was a major regional capital controlling trade in Yucatan in the period AD 900 and AD 1050, with Isla Cerritos as a major trading port. The city also participated in the circum-peninsular trade via its Isla Cerritos port; thus it obtained resources from distant lands; for example, obsidian was obtained from Central Mexico, and gold was obtained from the Southern Central America (Schele and David 13). The initial site core layout of the Chichen Itza developed during the period 750 AD and 900 AD; final layout was implemented after the year 900 AD, and in the 10th Century the city became a regional trade capital, controlling trade area between the North coast and Central Yucatan and its trade power spreading to the peninsula east and west coasts. Chichen Itza prominence rose at around 600 AD; however the site became a regional power at the later stages of the Late Classic period, and initial stages of Terminal Classic period. The site controlled and dominated socio-political and economic aspects in Maya lowlands in the North (Castaà ±eda 298). The rise of Chichen Itza relates with the decline of major centers in the lowlands of Southern Maya. Archaeological data shows that Chichen Itza influence reduced considerably as from 1250 CE; Mayan chronicles indicate that in the 13th century, ruler of Mayapan (Hunac Ceel) conquered the city, Chichen Itza. In the year 1526, a charter was gr anted by the King of Spain to Francisco de Montejo so as conquer Yucatan.Montejo led alarge Indo-Spanish army which concoured the Yucatan Peninsula. The Spanish King thereafter gave a land grant and by 1588,

Chapter Four Reading Response Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Chapter Four Reading Response - Assignment Example t of Egypt whereas Ashoka fought for power and control in India in addition to devotion in Buddhism and imperial religion (Wilkins, Schultz and Linduff 94). I responded negatively to the Arch of Titus, Rome. This was marble over concrete core commissioned by Titus (Wilkins, Schultz and Linduff 95). Additionally, I responded negatively to Flora from the Villa of Arianna at Castellammare di Stabia. This is given that, they both symbolize inconsequential meanings, for example, the Flora signified silk garments that men should not define themselves with and the Arch of Titus represented the suppression of the Jewish movement and flattering control over Jerusalem. I would like to learn more about the Buddhist Monument specifically the Great Stupa at Sanchi. This is considering that I admired the extensive value of this piece of art and its religious significance. I find it simply out of the ordinary piece of arts. How was it possible to preserve the religious value of the Great Stupa at Sanchi from the prehistoric times in early Buddhism to the present day? Finding answers to this question, entails carrying out research which include, consulting art experts and searching the library data base of ancient arts and

Marco Palmezzano, Holy Family with the Infant Saint John the Baptist Essay - 1

Marco Palmezzano, Holy Family with the Infant Saint John the Baptist - Essay Example ainter near the Umbrian school, the first who practised foreshortening with much success and one of the most outstanding fresco painters of the 15th century.... Â  Marco Palmezzano, 1an Italian from Forli, Romagna ( 1460 – 1539) would be considered as a High Renaissance Artist would depend upon which of his works was being considered. He originally trained as an artist under the master Melozzo da Forli and his earliest work is perhaps the fresco decoration dating from around1480-84 of the vault of the sacristy of the treasury at Santa Casa, Loreto, which was designed by Melozzo da Forli considered to be a great master of perspective and had worked with the better known Piero Della Francesa. Marco was working with his teacher on fresco for the Capella Feo in S.Girolamo, in the town of Forli when the older man died, work that has since been destroyed by war action. Henry La Farge says of the relationship between the two artists Mellozo and Della Francesca that Mellozo:- It is likely that he had also studied architecture in Urbino, according to an article originally written in 1915.3 This seems likely when the fine architectural detail in many of his works is considered , including the one under consideration, as well as his familiarity with various types of marble and his ability to reproduce them on canvas or other material. The same writer points out how Marco Palmezzano would signed himself as the pupil of Melozzo, and the fact that this has caused confusion as to who actually painted a piece and their works have consequently been misattributed. This would also in part explain why Palmezzano is relatively unknown despite having works on exhibition in such prestigious places as the National Gallery4 and The Courtauld Institute, both in London, but also in many other places in Western Europe, in Australia and the United States of America. At some point in his twenties Palmezzano he traveled to Rome, where it is possible he painted the fresco in th e church

Ethics in the Business Research and Reporting Process Paper

Ethics in the Business and Reporting Process - Research Paper Example Ethical Concerns in Business Research and Reporting Plagiarism Business research and reporting, calls for no condoning of plagiarism since it effects badly on the integrity of the business. Plagiarism in business research may include previous reviews, historical researches, methodological and even interpretations of other previous researchers. Every research conducted in business that uses ideas from previous research must acknowledge the source properly. Tenbrunsel and Messick argue that if research is conducted by a group it is unethical for one person to claim responsibility for the finished product. All members who participated in a research should be accorded proper acknowledgement wherever practical (1996). Misuse of Privileged Information In the course of undertaking business research and reporting, the researcher usually comes into contact with privileged information. The use of privileged information may take the form of plagiarism; for instance when information concerning p roposals for grant applications is not kept in confidence by a researcher, or when an editor does not keep draft manuscripts in confidence which may preempt rights of first publication. Such actions may end up depriving the originator of the idea of due acknowledgement and profit. The breaching of confidentiality by a researcher is a serious matter as it may expose the researcher to legal obligations of intellectual theft if the information is subsequently used by unauthorized entities (Pimple, 2008). Data Management There are various ethical issues under data management which the business researcher has to adhere to such as; the integrity of data; the use or misuse of data; access and ownership to data and retention and storage of data. The significance of ensuring the integrity of data cannot be overstated. The giving of false or fabricated data is a serious breach of the ethical standards in business research and reporting. The business researcher will be held accountable for any findings presented which leads to erroneous decision making. The researcher should not release findings which are yet to be confirmed until he has confirmed them. It is the responsibility of the researcher to maintain clear record of his research which would enable a validation of the research conducted (Farell & Fraedrich, 2011). As such the researcher must store his research in a manner which enables other people to easily access it for review. A researcher who errs in the representation of material unknowingly is however exempted from liability unless reckless misconduct can be proved. A good example is a researcher who is supposed to interview 17 people in a firm, he has interviewed 13 but he is wary of getting late for his plane leaving for a holiday in Hawaii. He makes his conclusions based on the 13 which is a breach as the information is potentially misleading. Concerning the use and misuse of data, it is important for the researcher to acquaint himself with the relevant re search methodology and use it in the right way. Ethical standards in reporting and research require that all information that is relevant be included in the final analysis. Disregard of any information should be explained if liability for gross misconduct is to be avoided. Any changes in methodology or protocol in an ongoing research must be sanctioned by management and

FDT 1 week 4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

FDT 1 week 4 - Essay Example Pena-Nieto’s administration should consider applying border initiative-operation Rio Grande. Rio Grande centralized local, state, county and federal law enforcement intelligence. Similarly, Pena-Nieto’s government should use current available assets including the National Guard under the supervision of Texas Homeland Security Director (Hesterman, 2013, p. 153). There should be viable strategies aimed at enhancing security at the Mexico-Texas border. Sustainable techniques include paying officers overtime to enhance patrols, coordinating state agencies, and sharing information with federal agencies (Hesterman, 2013, p.154). Pena-Nieto’s government should initiate programs that offer ammunition and training to law enforcers and oversight of security agencies operating at the Mexico-Texas border. Currently, Pena-Nieto’s government uses the army to conduct police related activities, in contradiction of provisions outlined under the Posse Comitatus law. Nieto has an established and healthy working condition with bordering countries. The administration employs foreign-based agents to work in coordination with Interpol and other international organizations on drug-related issues (Gaines, 2011, p. 231). Employment of more law enforcement agents is a key success of the administration in addressing challenges of drug cartels along Mexico-Texas

How do you think the media influences the public's perception of the Essay

How do you think the media influences the public's perception of the criminal justice system - Essay Example As per the research of Beale and Lowndes (2007) the media thanks to the advancement in live television broadcasts and the thirst of the public to have the freshest and most exciting news possible has forced the once responsible media outlets to feed a frenzy of tabloid news reporting when it comes to the criminal justice beat instead. They explained that (Beale & Lowndes, 2007). â€Å"First, through agenda setting and priming, the news media’s relentless emphasis increases public concern about crime and makes it a more important criteria in assessing political leaders. Once the issue has been highlighted, the news media’s emphasis appears to increase support for punitive policies, though the mechanisms through which this occurs are less understood.... Finally, media appears to influence public attitudes about criminal justice policies by instilling and reinforcing racial stereotypes and linking race to crime†. In other words, the news media no longer just reports the news, it also helps chart the path that the justice system will take in relation to a certain crime and the involved personalities. This charting is based upon the medias own preset criteria of guilt or innocence in relation to their own personal or network standards for news reporting and information gathering. With â€Å"justice† oriented programs like Nancy Grace and Jane Velez gracing out TV screens, I believe that the theory of Beales and Lowndes (2007) carry the proper information and weight for me to understand that the media has influenced our perception of the criminal justice system and not in a good way. These days, we make decisions about the guilt or innocence of a person based upon information that these reporters get and, without verification, tell the viewers about. Instead of allowing to make informed decisions, the media instead asks us to make knee jerk reactions about their news reporting which could also be slanted one way or another

Special Education Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Special Education - Article Example avior, of which William was also observed to exhibit: inattention: â€Å"often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly† (cited in Foley, Carlton, & Howell, 1996, pp. 341-342); hyperactivity: â€Å"often leaves seat in classroom or in other situations in which remaining seated is expected; often runs about or climbs excessively in situations in which it is inappropriate† (APA, 1994, cited in Foley, Carlton, & Howell, 1996, p. 342). Concurrently, the behaviors that suggest that this may be a conduct disorder are as follows: aggression: â€Å"often bullies, threatens, or intimidates; often initiates physical fights; has been physically cruel to people† (APA, 1994, cited in Foley, Carlton, & Howell, 1996, p. 342); and destruction of property: â€Å"has deliberately destroyed others property† (APA, 1994, cited in Foley, Carlton, & Howell, 1996, p. 342). In making any recommendations or actions to address William’s dilemma, the legal considerations that must be taken into account include the use of excess force to restrain William and which could cause harm and injury to him; and implementing interventions that run counter to those recommended by the DHS or the surrogate mother, without proper court order or legal approval. Foley, H., Carlton, C., & Howell, R. (1996). The Relationship of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Conduct Disorder to Juvenile Delinquency: Legal Implications. Retrieved from Bull Am Acad Psychiatry Law:

Memorial Park Essay Example for Free

Memorial Park Essay El Paso Texas has many tourism places for its society. Many of these historical places are more than 100 years old. And learn about their society as well. As an illustration the San Jacinto Plaza has been their for many years, but its famous for its alligators, and also known as Plaza de Los Lagartos. Plaza de Los Lagartos is use for touristic attraction amusements, and parades. Back in the 1880s through 1960s downtown El Paso featured an amusement in the center of the plaza, a pond filled with live alligators. That attract many people from El Paso. But they had to move the alligators, because they cant survive the cold weather nights. they didnt remove them completely, citizen work to put a sculpture made by Luis A. Jimenez. The alligators sculpture it what makes today history in The San Jacinto Plaza. The San Jacinto makes a tourism illustration that us the society still have history alive. Todays sculpture is used to remember the alligators as a tourist attraction. San Jacinto plaza Amusement Park has been used by many artists in the 1960s. The live alligators attracted people from all counties and was a main reason to come visit El Paso. There was 3 alligators and the amusement park showings were daily from morning to night. Also for example the San Jacinto plaza has been use for bus stops. People use it to rest and wait for the next bus. It also known as an amusement park because all the old buildings around the plaza. And back in the 80s people use it only to hangout and see the alligators. San Jacinto plaza has been known more for its colorful night parades on Christmas. People from El Paso decorate the plaza with colorful lights, and they also put an Christmas tree big enough so everybody can see. People make an long parade, this parade its only on nights, because they have surtain amount of light. The parades has an Santa clause, elfs, candies, deers, and much more stuff. And at the end of this parade they all end up in the Plaza de Los Lagartos where people can enjoy the shows, singing, food and Santa. And at the end of this show they throw fireworks to amaze the children. This parades are only on Christmas. PlazaSan Jacinto has been a pretty historical place for many people. Sometimes I wish I could live back in the 1880 to inform myself Why was the reason the government decided to put alive alligators? This place had cause many happiest especially on children in Christmas days. have experienced the live alligators because personally I have never seen one up close and it would be a great experience to watch them eat and roam around their habitat. However the parade is a very nice touch and makes for a great attraction to .

Teaching Creativity in Primary Schools

Teaching Creativity in Primary Schools Creativity Arts Primary â€Å"The philosophical foundation for teaching integrated arts in the primary school is based on the belief that aesthetic and creative education is the entitlement of every child and that the nature and quality of the provisions determines the distinctiveness of cultural life and academic performance in school.†(Bloomfield,2000,pg1). For this essay I am going to be talking about why teaching creativity in the arts in primary school is an essential part of children’s learning and what children gain from the lessons. I will be reflecting on my own learning experiences in this module as I feel this justifies why creative arts should be taught. I will be explaining how I can use what I have learnt, from this module, in school and talk about the creative lessons I have planned for in school. â€Å"Children’s natural enthusiasm for the arts, as major and valid sources of knowledge, is nurtured from the first day at school and their motivation and commitment is maintained throughout their primary years.† (Bloomfield,2000,pg1). Creative arts is an essential part of school life as it includes practical engagement of all children as they learn how to paint, compose music, write or to dance, and as they progress through the school year their knowledge of each art form deepens. When children discover social, cultural or historical aspects of the arts they are able to increase their knowledge of the topic by referring to books, articles, artefacts, CDs, recordings and videos. This also gives the children a deeper understanding of their work. (Bloomfield,2000). Creative arts also develop the use of children’s imagination, the way that they respond to their own life experiences and the way they express and communicate their ideas. This can also help their physical development which includes performing confidently, imaginably and good use of space for themselves and others while performing. (Moyles,2002). Creative arts also involves children with different learning needs, audio, visual and kinaesthetic. The lessons are designed to include all children and allow children to achieve their goals. Each creative area helps develop different skills for learning. I am going to talk about how drama, music and art can aid children’s learning in school. â€Å"Art and design stimulates creativity and imagination. It provides visual tactile and sensory experiences and a unique way of understanding the world.†(DfEE,1999,pg116). Art artefacts can be found anywhere, all that is needed is imagination to use these artefacts effectively and this can then bring any classroom activity to life. All artefacts that are found can be used to teach the programmes of study in the National Curriculum. â€Å"Art is fashioned from world resources, and the natural environment has provided the stimulus for wide ranging art activities both as the stimulus for the design and in the way in which the properties of its material has determined the form of the art object†. (Bloomfield,2000,pg88). During art sessions children acquire a range of skills which include visual and manual skills, skills to use a wide range of materials and media and problem solving skills. These skills then enable children to formulate their ideas and use materials and artefacts to create their own artefacts in 2D and 3D form. The use of these skills enhance children’s practical knowledge of art making. Children become critically aware during art sessions. They are able to discuss and write about their experiences of art making and develop a metalanguage to discuss their experiences of visual art and design. (Bloomfield,2000). â€Å"Children build up their powers of discussion; they incorporate a vocabulary that has meaning for them from their own creative participation as well as in critical discussion.† (Moyles,2002,pg40). During a school topic where art is a key focus it is essential to present children’s work either in a portfolio or a class display as this allows the class to reflect on the work they have produced and the value of the process and allows children to comment constructively on each others work. (Bloomfield,2000). â€Å"Music is a powerful, unique form of communication that can change the way pupils feel, think and act. It brings together intellect and feeling and enables personal expression, reflection and emotional development.† (DfEE,1999,pg122). Music sessions in school provide vital skills for children to progress through their primary and secondary years. Music lessons enhance children’s listening skills. â€Å"Listening is fundamental both in forms of the sounds independently produced and also the collective responses of groups.† Music also enhances group work as it aids inclusion because children, whatever their background or aptitude, have the ability to express themselves successfully in the classroom. Mutual respect and self-discipline is acquired during these sessions as children develop good relationships with each other. (Bloomfield,2000). â€Å"Participation in music and its integration with other art forms provides a rich social environment for children. Performance and presentational work develops a close working relationship within the peer group.† (Bloomfield,2000,pg76). Music is also looked at as a form of communication. Many professional song writers write songs to deploy meaning and get messages out to the greater world. Musical understanding through singing songs helps children use their voices in an eloquent and effective manner. Children in school are encouraged to adapt music as a form of communication asmusic offers a unique mode of experience where children can receive and express ideas and feelings. This also encourages children to use descriptive language to describe why they have chosen a particular sound to represent their emotions mood or feelings. Music also develops children’s speech as children with musical training have a greater capability to process all sounds, including speech. (Bloomfield,2000). â€Å"ICT is a powerful and necessary tool for the children which both enhances and informs their music, whether as creators, performers, or as investigators.† (Bloomfield,2000,pg87). Children can use music to find out about the world. There are many links that can be made with music and the celebration of diversity. Children can be encouraged to make music CDs to share with different schools in different communities and countries. Music which the children relate to or which is related to the topic may create different feelings. These feelings can be compared within the group or between different schools. As with music there is no right or wrong answer and it would be interesting to see how other people interpret their ideas and this celebrates diversity. (Bloomfield,2000). When children have recorded their piece it is possible for them to use it as backing music to a performance associated with their topic, this then uses music to enhance and intensify the other creative arts. Drama can be split into two sections, drama and dance. â€Å"Dance education provides children with an artistic language of actions which, linked with their intellectual and physical growth, is transformed into a significant and meaningful mode of communication.† (Bloomfield,2000,pg46). Dance sessions gain children techniques in coordinating movements, inventing movements, remembering movements and then transferring the movements into a dance routine. During these sessions children are encouraged to use their whole body to do this. Dance can be linked to Literacy sessions as children are â€Å"using their bodies to express metaphors and symbols through the formulation and organisation of movement patterns that capture and convey meaning.† (Bloomfield,2000,pg 45). This is also a good way to introduce poetry to children, as they are comparing themselves to something different. Children may be encouraged to show how they are feeling as dance has a semantic structure which provides the basis of how children can think, feel and express ideas through movement. Drama and dance can be used to enhance descriptive work of characters the children are portraying. Drama links with literacy development and understanding as it enables children with the pronunciation of words and recitation from stories and poems. (Bloomfield,2000). Pie Corbett believes that children should story map to remember plots in their stories. This is to help them when they are reciting stories to the class. He believes that this way helps develop a child’s memory as they only need their own interpretation of a picture to tell a story. Dance and music linked together is a way for children to express their understanding of themselves and the world as they perceive it. This can encourage children to research different dances and music from different countries of the world. When children participate in these lessons they are including themselves in the coordination of the group. Once children have been given an initial stimulus they are in control of their group. This then develops their skills in working collectively and harmoniously together because a group who can not function this way will have no hope in producing a final piece of work. Drama can be linked with music as this can provide an effective atmosphere matching the mood for a production. Art can be used to create wall displays, props and set designs for a drama production. During this module I can honestly say I have felt lost at times. The reason for this was due to my own experiences that involved creative arts at school. During art lessons I was always under the impression that I could not draw. I would always feel embarrassed about my work. The art teacher gave me no confidence in the lessons. It was a case of turning up, doing the work and then be given no constructive feedback. I took this negativity into my first art seminar. I did not feel comfortable doing the tasks that were set but I carried on. I then had a very long discussion with Catherine about my finished products. She then told me that I was concentrating on the negatives factors of my art work and I should look closely at the positives. Even though I believe she was cross with my attitude towards art, she took the time to teach me a valuable lesson. This I will never forget and I can use effectively in my own art lesson. By making me see the positives in my work I was able to achieve more because I felt confident in what I was doing. I was praised effectively but not over praised as I would have thought she was patronising me. This is the correct attitude to have in the classroom whilst teaching. Children know when they have been given false or too much praise and then the praise is not effective. â€Å"Praise can alienate pupils because every response is being judged by the praise it receives.†(Cockburn,2006,pg105). During my time in school I have planned individual drama and music lessons. For the music lesson the class was split into three groups. Each group was given a number of instruments that made sounds related to Christmas. I gave each group a starting point and this was Christmas Eve, Christmas day morning and Christmas day afternoon. I asked each group to compile a composition relating to the starting point. The children knew that this was their first draft of a composition and they would have time to â€Å"practise, rehearse and perform† ,(DfEE,1999,pg126), as the teacher was going to use my idea in further music lessons. The children had to note the pattern of their music using symbols; this was going to make it easier for them to improve the composition. The children were left in control of their own compositions as I did not want any of my own personal input involved in their work. Children are far more creative and adventurous when they are left to their own devices and the y will learn more about their work. (Bloomfield,2000). â€Å"Tell me and I forget, show me and I may remember, let me do it and I will learn.†(DfEE,1999,pg90). It is important when using the creative arts that the children have an end product to show for their work. It was therefore essential that our group was able to show off our work on the ‘Railway lines through the snow’ painting. This gave us a sense of achievement and finalised all our hard work. As a group we all developed through the module especially our concert performance. I had to listen to my peers and they had to listen to me. We had to stay harmonised and focused otherwise the concert would have been a disaster. Each member of the group had different personal strengths and we had to use each others strengths to aid our concert performance. I developed all the skills that I have spoken about which children develop during creative arts sessions and I understand if we did not have these skills we would not progress, and achieve our end goal. â€Å"The creative arts permit individual children to conceptualise and understand their strength areas to compensate or overcome weakness in other areas. It also has the impact of motivating children, sustaining their interest and improving their self-esteem. It provides in-depth study and develops all round skills.†(Bloomfield,2000,pg108). Experience in the creative arts is therefore an essential part of a child’s learning. References Bloomfield. A. (2000). Teaching Integrated Arts in the Primary School. London:David Fulton Publishers. Cockburn A. Handscomb G. (2006). Teaching children 3-11, a students guide. 2nd ed. London: Paul Chapman Publishing. DfES., (1999). The National Curriculum. London:DfES Moyes, J. (2002). Beginning Teaching:Beginning Learning in Primary Education. Second edition. Buckingham: Open University. Palmer, S.(2003) Literacy: What works? London: Nelson Thornes.